Perspectives on Free-Speech Zones on College Campuses Essay

Normally, many negative undertones join the term â€Å"free-discourse zone. † The wording alone consequently suggests that free discourse ought not be permitted all over the place, which is not really the genuine expectation of the thought. Some of the time the privilege of free discourse is exploited, for example, in specific assemblies and fights, where troublesome commotion, brutality, and devastation regularly happens. Colleges hold an obligation to their understudies of giving a sensibly sheltered and undisruptive condition to learn and exceed expectations in. Colleges are not making â€Å"free-discourse zones† to constrain free discourse, yet rather to keep up a protected air that is helpful for fixation and higher learning. Colleges ought to have the option to keep up a specific degree of security nearby in the manner they pick. â€Å"The University maintains all authority to migrate or drop the movement because of disturbance from unreasonable commotion levels, traffic snare, or if the security of people is in question† (West Virginia University’s Student Handbook 91). They are not subverting the privilege of free discourse that we as Americans lawfully hold, however are making a fitting methods for demonstrators to voice their sentiments without causing superfluous interruption and tumult in unseemly places nearby. An issue I do have with this thought of a â€Å"free-discourse zone† is that there isn’t an away from of when or where these zones ought to be utilized. Who is to state whether the voicing of a specific assessment or thought requires the utilization of a â€Å"free-discourse zone†? On the off chance that what establishes the utilization of a â€Å"free-discourse zone† was better characterized then the utilization of such â€Å"zones† could be increasingly full of feeling and fitting. As expressed by Robert J. Scott, fight zones have been utilized at numerous political shows and other significant occasions. â€Å"Protest zones can be sensible limitations that permit free-discourse rights to be communicated while diminishing wellbeing concerns and forestalling undue disruption† (Scott 92). With the historical backdrop of brutality and pulverization that is related with fights, it is just regular that specific precautionary measures be taken to forestall such issues. It is too obscure to even consider saying the free articulation of perspectives or suppositions may not â€Å"disrupt the typical capacity of the university,† as expressed in the West Virginia University’s understudy handbook. Who chooses what the â€Å"normal function† genuinely is, or when it is being â€Å"disrupted? † If a college chooses to build up the utilization of â€Å"free-discourse zones† then they ought to have the option to give an unmistakable and succinct depiction of when, and for what reason, these â€Å"zones† ought to be utilized. One of a colleges top needs is to make their grounds as protected and secure as could be expected under the circumstances, and if â€Å"free-discourse zones† or â€Å"protest zones† are what they feel are important to keep up that security then they ought to have the option to implement them. The issue truly comes down to whether these â€Å"zones† are utilized fittingly. Whenever utilized broadly, and at levels that are superfluous for the security of understudies, at that point human rights issues could without much of a stretch become an integral factor. However, whenever utilized in a brilliant way, for example, for bigger shows of the right to speak freely of discourse, similar to fights and rallies, at that point they could be useful in forestalling demolition as well as interruption on college grounds. â€Å"Requiring those communicating difference to comply with the law at the same time doesn't establish repression† (Scott 92).

Visual Arts

â€Å"Artist regularly allude or reference what was gone before† Discuss the announcement utilizing the Renaissance craftsmen and their enthusiasm for Classical and Hellenistic Greek ideas. The Renaissance was a social development that spread over the period generally from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century. â€Å"Renaissance† implies â€Å"re-birth† and alludes to the re-birth of traditional styles of learning. Likewise the Renaissance time frame considered training especially in expressions of the human experience, similar to theory, design and the visual expressions †as a rule methods of survey the world as it genuinely was instead of as â€Å"The Church† dictated.The Renaissance in Europe, the humanist stylish and the high specialized guidelines of Greek workmanship kept on rousing numerous ages of European craftsmen. Looking further into the nineteenth century, the Classical customs got from the Classical and Hellenistic Greek time frames have kept on commanding the specialty of the western world. The Classical time frame saw changes in the style and elements of figure. The postures become increasingly naturalistic and the specialized aptitude of these Greek stone workers expanded. They had the option to portray the human structure in an assortment of postures which were life like and real.From around 500 BC, the sculptures started to delineate genuine individuals. E. g. the sculptures of Harmodius and Aristogeitonâ showed in Athens to check the topple of theâ tyrannyâ were said to be the principal open landmarks to genuine individuals. The troublesomely in making a stylishly genuine individual and specialized test animated much in the method of sculptural advancement during the Classical and Hellenistic Greek times of history. Sadly, for us today, these works endure just in parts, The Most well known models enduring today are The Parthenon Marbles†, half of which are in the British Museum in England.In the Classical time frame there were a wide range of artists who created numerous lives like sensible works. A portion of these craftsmen or craftsmans include: Phidias which directed the structure and working of the Parthenon. Praxiteles, another extraordinary Classical artist made the female bare decent just because. This was in the later piece of the Classical time frame in the mid-fourth century BC. Be that as it may, the best works of the Classical time frame are viewed as the sculpture of Zeus at Olympia and the sculpture of Athena at the Parthenos. The general purpose of the Renaissance is that Europeans especially the Italians in any case, were looking to theClassical and Hellenistic Greek lessons and giving re-birth to their investigations. Renaissance craftsmans were thinking back to a period of extraordinary information, advancement and improvement. They reinvestigated the human structure and genuine human extent. Michelangelo created a 5m tall â€Å"David† from a strong square of white marble. His work dependent on the scriptural David from the Goliath story is really astounding a direct result of its impressive thought of the crowd viewpoint, its exact extent from this vantage point and the existence like position. David† was really founded on the Classical models that portrayed the Greek Adonis or lovely male competitor of the first Olympic Games. The change from the Classical to the Hellenistic time frames happened during the fourth century BC. Following the victories of Alexander the Great, Here Greek craftsmanship turned out to be progressively various and impacted by different societies of individuals who were brought into the Greek circle. What's more, in the perspective on some workmanship antiquarians, it likewise declined in quality and creativity. Huge numbers of the models recently considered as Classical artful culminations ended up being of the later Hellenistic age.The specialized capacity of the Hellenistic stone carver was obviously in proof in such significant functions as the â€Å"Winged triumph of Samothrace† and the â€Å"Pergamon Altar†. During this period, form turned out to be increasingly naturalistic. Everyday citizens, ladies, youngsters, creatures and residential scenes became satisfactory subjects for mold, which was charged by well off families for the decoration of their homes and gardens. These stone workers no longer felt obliged to portray individuals as goals of magnificence or physical perfection.Hellenistic design was additionally set apart by an expansion in scale, which finished in the â€Å"Colossus of Rhodes† which was made during the late third Century BC. Individuals of the Renaissance were exploratory and imaginative. To investigate and imagine the Renaissance individuals thought back to the information, thoughts and abilities of the Classical Greeks and Hellenistic periods. Obviously, the Renaissance formed into its own style since it was an under standing of old style learning more than anything. Renaissance craftsmen, journalists and students thought back to the Greeks for data and inspiration.Many works of art of the time highlight Greek gods, etc, despite the fact that individuals quit having confidence in the some time before. A case of this could be Botticelli’s Venus. Here despite the fact that to us the scene is legendary Venus is again flawlessly proportioned like Michelongelo’s â€Å"David†. Venus likewise has the equivalent contrapposto position which was initially evolved during the Classical Greek time frame. This strategy for representing the subject gave the subject life since it outlined a three dimensional thought which implied the subject appeared as though they were alive and traveling through genuine space.As has been shown Renaissance craftsmen were certainly impacted by â€Å"that which had gone before†. They utilized â€Å"the Golden Mean† rules for human extent, they utilized symbolism from Greek legends and they returned to the contrapposto position to give their subjects life. It is unimaginable for any craftsman of any period not to be impacted by that which has gone before in light of the fact that society is continually thinking back to improve what's to come. An artist’s practice can't abstain from being impacted by â€Å"that which has gone before†.Rather than a period with complete beginnings and endings and predictable substance in the middle of, the Renaissance can be viewed as a development of practices and thoughts to which explicit gatherings and recognizable people differently reacted in various occasions and places. They are impacted really by the old style and Hellenistic piece of Greek craftsmanship. Appeared through the craftsman of the renaissance, model Michelangelo which created a 5m David. This would be in this system of assorted, in some cases meeting, at times clashing societies that the Renaissance changed our creative mind and our perspective on how we see our reality forever.

Reading (and Viewing) Pathway The Photography of Richard Nagler

Reading (and Viewing) Pathway The Photography of Richard Nagler Richard Nagler is a San Francisco  Bay Area photographer  whose  most recent book of life-imitates-art photos, Looking at Art, the Art of Looking was published earlier this year and was my favorite August read. I have to go all old school movie reference to say that Looking at Art had me at its cover. And I know that we’re not supposed to judge a book like that, but in the case of photography, can we make an exception? Because after reading (yes, reading Ill get back to that) Looking at Art, I had to have more Nagler. You read these books of fine-art photography because each photo is a chapter and each book a whole story about the chosen subject. And then there are the introductions,  sometimes including commentary or conversations with the author  the part of Nagler’s picture books that read like delectable  NY Times Sunday articles you savor over coffee. Oakland Rhapsody: The Secret Soul of An American Downtown  is narrated by a writer who is became the voice of the city: Ishmael Reed. “Oakland refuses to die,” he writes in the preface. The words a prophecy in 1995, after the massive earthquake and city-leveling fire: today Oakland is Brooklyn, the place where the affluent flee as San Francisco dot-coms itself to death and prices everyone else  out. Nagler  captured a city in decline that, ironically, was actually on the rise as he snapped his shots. The crumbling edifices here- the Fox Theatre, the old flower shop, the entirety of downtown in 2014, are back and thriving.  Oakland is my favorite city in the whole world, and I fell in love with Nagler because his photos show, better than I can write, his love for the city I love. Oakland Rhapsodys cover captures an iconic  image of the city: picturesque Lake Merritt, ringed with twinkling lights of gold, an juxtaposition of worlds with a bird sanctuary and library on one end, and on the other, the infamous high rise of Huey P. Newton, co-founder of the Black Panther Party for Self Defense and author of  Revolutionary Suicide.  The photos are essays, poems, confessionals, manifestos. Each single one is a mini saga waiting to be told. The seen-better-days guy downing a beer can in front of a dilapidated storefront sign reading  Herbs Remedies, and, so small you almost miss it the first time,  Drugs. The kids strutting down the sidewalk in front a a mural of kids strutting down the sidewalk. The Chinese-Mexican-Native-White Vietnamese street fairs, parades, church services, barbershops, basketball courts cowboy gangsta grandmas. This is the city of Oakland, immortalized in  all its ever-changing glory. Next up is  My Love Affair with Miami Beach, with introductions and commentary by Isaac Bashevis Singer. I love a good beach but this is nothing like Ive ever seen. This time Naglers subjects, intimates  of the Jewish neighborhood of South Beach, are mostly aware of being photographed, which makes for a happy, happy book of posers.  In this beautiful water world, I challenge you to find a picture of someone younger than 55. (Ok, there are a few, mostly children, and one picture of the most unsexy topless woman who, in any other context would probably be drool-worthy. Not here.) I’ve never visited Miami, except for disastrous hangovers in its airport, but my mental image of it, from this book, is a city of sweet, feisty grandmas in bikinis on clear, sandy beaches. A city overflowing with love. Old ladies loving life, flashing veiny legs while rollers rest in their hair. Lifelong girlfriends lunching, lovers holding age spotted hands, children playing, men with Nazi prison numbers, green on smooth forearms, prayers and yarmulkes on every corner, and the sun, my god the sun. Like every city, there are many parts that make up the whole of Miami. This is one of the best. Finally, in  Word on the Street, preface by Peter Selz: “Richard Nagler has photographed words, but substituted humans.  We are word people, so chances are, like me, you’ll want to blow up at least one of these photographs wall size to meditate on from time to time. Because words. Or more specifically, images of one person, one word. Haunting words, like the barely visible Lord on the wall where the silhouette  of a cowboy-hat-wearing urbanite walks. A possible transient, trash bag at her feet, holding onto as if her life depended on it the street sign reading Lucky.  A young girl in a bathing suit, in the middle of the city, acutely aware of her cuteness, showing off as she passes an  Infinity car. A big, blue OXYGEN sign, while below it a security guard smokes. Nagler spent 30 years, seeking around the world, waiting  for just the right person to meet that one sign.  Selz introduction thoughtfully includes a brief history of the evolution of modern art’s use of things Americana, pop culture artifacts, logos, the word from Picasso to Walker Evans to Dennis Hopper.  And as a postscript, to wrap it all up is a message on words,  by the artist himself. As were talking about his books, my recommendation is to pick up copies and experience them for yourselves. But for a sneak peek  you can check out Naglers  website, where each photo narrative is set to a soundtrack, and provides a sampling of the whole story.

1996 Apush Exam - 2837 Words

AP United States History Test Answer Explanations: 1996 1. The principal motivation for drafting the Bill of Rights was the desire to: Protect rights not specified in the Constitution. The correct answer (B) was chosen by 93% of test takers. 2. Which of the following statements about the â€Å"American System† is correct? It was designed to meet the nation’s need for economic progress and self-sufficiency. The correct answer (D) was chosen by 70% of test takers. 3. In 1861 the North went to war with the South primarily to: Preserve the Union The correct answer (C) was chosen by 90% of test takers. 4. Which of the following statements best describes the clothing industry in the late nineteenth century? The sewing†¦show more content†¦20. The graph above refutes which of the following statements? Most southern families did held slaves. The correct answer (B) was chosen by 71% of test takers. 21. Which of the following was primarily responsible for the declining death rate in American cities at the end of the nineteenth century? Cities built sewers and supplied purified water. The correct answer (E) was chosen by 76% of test takers. 22. Which of the following labor organizations endorsed the philosophy of â€Å"bread and butter† unionism by concentrating on demands for higher wages, shorter hours, and improved working conditions? The American Federation of Labor. The correct answer (C) was chosen by 43% of test takers. 23. Which of the following statements about the Tennessee Valley Authority is correct? It built dams that made rural electrification possible. The correct answer (D) was chosen by 66% of test takers. 24. In negotiations to end the Cuban Missile Crisis, President Kennedy promised to: Refrain from a military invasion of Cuba. The correct answer (D) was chosen by 55% of test takers. 25. The primary purpose of the Stamp Act was to: Raise revenues to support British troops stationed in America The correct answer (A) was chosen by 60% of test takers. 26. The Declaration of Independence did all of the following EX EPT: Call for the abolition of the

Genetically Modified Organisms, Also Known As Gmo’S, Are

Genetically modified organisms, also known as GMO’s, are important to today’s society because they bring more food to more people at a cheaper price. If a crop is a GMO, it means that its DNA sequence has been altered in a lab. When seeds are genetically altered in this way, it is to inject a certain characteristic that is not present in the traditional plant into the DNA. Usually, this characteristic is to make the crop more susceptible to fertilizer and pesticides, or to sustain harsh weather conditions. Sometimes, genes are modified to make foods taste better or be more nutrient dense. Not everyone believes that genetically modified organisms are positive because people feel that they are both unnatural and unethical due to the fact†¦show more content†¦By producing more food for a cheaper price, the farmer makes more money, and the consumer saves more money. Although people feel that genetically modified organisms are unsafe, they are actually healthier for our bodies, our planet, and are more affordable. A report, Genetically Engineered Crops: Past Experience and Future Prospects written by the Academics’ study committee was created to answer some of the most controversial questions involved with genetically modified organisms. This report took a scientific view point of the subject of genetically engineered crops. The committee’s first order of business was to research the effect of genetically modified organisms on agriculture and the environment. This study included the research of insecticide and herbicide use, insect and weed resistance, and crop yield. The study concluded â€Å"no conclusive evidence of cause-and-effect relationships between Genetically Engineered crops and environmental problems†. In addition, the study did prove that insects and weeds are developing a stronger resistance to the Genetically Engineered crops. The data also revealed that this insect and weed resistant positively impacted crop yield. This means that farmers have to spray less chemicals, which is cheaper, and also healthier for the Earth. Because GM’s resist insects and weeds, harvests lose less crops, which means more crops can be produced, which is important when trying to feed the world. While many people are often concerned with theShow MoreRelatedGentically Modified Organisms are the Topic of Conversation718 Words   |  3 PagesIn the past decade or so, genetically modified foods and genetically modified organisms, also known as GM Foods and GMO’s, have been a never ending topic of discussion. GM Foods and GMO’s have adversely affected people’s health all over the world. GMO’s are developed through taking genes of different species, then combining them through genetic engineering. Neither of those things can happen naturally or out in nature. That should raise lots of red flags to our society already. Adding these alteredRead MoreGmo : Genetically Modified Organisms876 Words   |  4 PagesHas it ever dawned upon a person why GMO’s products are never labeled as GMO’s? Or why people that try to speak up against GMO products are â€Å"breaking the law† and are being sued for showing people the truth that they have t he right to know? This is because GMO’s are bad. GMO’s (Genetically Modified Organisms) are being created in order to help make these companies do that exact, along with a few other things. GMO’s are plants or animals that have undergone a process wherein scientists alter theirRead MoreGenetically Modified Organisms1582 Words   |  6 PagesGenetically Modified Organisms also known as GMO’s are commonplace items today on the shelves of the local grocery store, or even the racks of the local department store. Technology today has allowed companies to modify the genetics of everything from corn and soybeans, to cotton and salmon. It hasn’t been known until now how many products really contain these genetically modified organisms. This paper will discuss the origins of GMO’s, the companies that produce these GMO’s, how GMO’s are createdRead MoreThe Harm Negative Effects Of Genetically Modified Food1068 Words   |  5 Pagestesti ng and labelling of genetically engineered foods, the agency has made consumers unknowing guinea pigs for potentially harmful, unregulated food substances, stated Andrew Kimbrell, Executive Director of the International Center for Technology Assessment (CTA). A  genetically modified organism (GMO)  is an organism whose genome has been altered by the techniques of genetic engineering so that its DNA contains one or more genes not normally found within the DNA of the organism.. According to The WorldRead MoreGenetic Modification : Genetically Modified Organisms1523 Words   |  7 PagesForcing genes from one species into a different, unrelated species forms genetically modified organisms. Webster’s Dictionary defines genetically modified organisms as â€Å"an organism whose genome has been altered in order to favor the expression of desired physiological traits or the output of desired biological products.† Genetically modified organisms are also known as transgenic organisms. There are many uses for genetic modification. Genetic modification is devoted mainly to the increased useRead MoreBenefits Of Genetically Modified Organisms1067 Words   |  5 PagesGMOs, or otherwise known as Genetically Modified Organisms, can be defined as organisms in which the genetic material, DNA, has been altered in a non-natural way. Genetically modified organisms have shown many advantages. They are safe to eat and environmentally sustainable. They are also safe, nutritious, and can help us adapt to our global problems. GMOs are also an approach to development that takes the finite resources of the Earth into consideration. The many, many pros of GMO’s heavily outweighRead MoreGenetically Modified Organisms ( Gmos )1337 Words   |  6 Pagesourselves a disservice to ourselves for instance, some of the ways that Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) caused damages is by altering the natural traits of our foods, negatively affecting our environment and impacting our abilities to function as regular humans.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Advancements in science, genetically modified organisms have become increasingly popular in the food market, the lack of consumer consent in the choice to eat GMO’s creates an ethical dilemma. Genetic engineering can increase theRead MoreBenefits Of Genetically Modified Organisms1294 Words   |  6 PagesDisease resistance, nutrition benefits, population growth, and environmental damage or should I say the causes of Genetically modified organisms. Genetically modified organisms are better known as GMO’s and can be defined as living organisms whose genetic material has been artificially manipulated in a laboratory through GM (genetic engineering) (â€Å"GMO facts†). This technique for crop management has been introduced to ensure farmers and merchants are able to improve crop or food quality in a moreRead MoreThe Dangers Of Genetically Modified Organisms860 Words   |  4 PagesThe Dangers of Genetically Modified Organisms GMO’s or genetically modified organisms are living organisms such as fruits or vegetables whose genetic material has been artificially manipulated through genetic engineering, this often includes inserting genetic material from another organism of a different species. The use of GMO’s is becoming more and more prevalent in the United States although long-term studies of their effects have yet to be done. The production of GMO’s is dangerous, the modifyingRead MoreBenefits Of Genetically Modified Foods905 Words   |  4 Pagesdecades since the discovery of genetically modified foods (foods formed by organisms that have gone through altering DNA using the procedures of genetic engineering.) In the year 1983, the original genetically modified herb was manufactured with antibiotic-resistant tobacco. A near decade after, the FDA (food and drug administration) had finally approved to put a genetically modified tomato on the market. Countless organizations are proclai ming the benefits of GMO’s, whereas, other believe it’s a

Climate Change Effect on Polar Bears Free Essays

Climate Change Effects on Artic Polar Bears Kenneth Halvorsen COM/156 09/30/2012 Jocelyn Henson Climate Change Effects on Artic Polar Bears Climate warming and ecological changes have caused a significant threat to the declining population of polar bears in the Arctic which is affecting human habitats Polar bears, the largest of the terrestrial carnivores, live on the Arctic ice for the majority of the year. The icy habitat allows polar bears to hunt for their primary prey – seals. The powerful species’s survival completely depends on their ability to use ice for feeding and breeding. We will write a custom essay sample on Climate Change Effect on Polar Bears or any similar topic only for you Order Now Some of the highest degrees of global warming effects have been on the polar regions of the world. Scientists around the globe are in agreement that such effects of greenhouse gases produced mainly through human induced emissions have resulted in an increase of the earth’s surface temperature. The continued denial concerning global warming could result in the complete polar bear extinction. Unquestionably, the beautiful species’s future depends on the protection of the arctic environment: its pollution levels, indigenous peoples hunt and total loss of ice. So, what should be done, if anything, to save the polar bear habitat? To begin analyzing the issue, let’s first discuss some of the delicate specifics of polar bear habitat and environment requirements which are critical for survival. Polar bears, as the largest of the bear family, must sustain enough food and accumulate enough body fat to keep those alive during the ice free period. They need to consume at least five pounds of seal blubber per day to stay healthy. Also, as they are the largest land predator in the world, bears live on the ice in locations where it is viable to hunt for seals which are their primary prey. Yet, they will also hunt Artic fox. They have been known to eat birds, reindeer, rodents, fish, or even the carcass of a dead whale. Strong swimmers, the bears roam over the vast expanses of sea ice while paddling with their front legs and using their rear legs as a ruder hunting for ringed seals, bearded seal, and occasionally beluga whales and even walrus. Polar bears have no natural predator and have no fear of man which makes things dangerous for both. There are few animals that will attack a man unprovoked yet, the polar bear is one that will actually hunt down humans and eat them. The problem begins where studies show that climate warming is creating a much shorter duration of time for sea ice and, therefore, is extending a later freezing in fall as well as early ice break-ups during summer. These changing conditions have shown seal depletion and a decline in the polar bears population. The average annual extend of ice has exceeded 1 million square kilometers. With over 40 percent decrease within the past 30 years of the ice coverage the population of polar bears has been substantially threatened (U. S. Fish and Wildlife Services, 2008). This and other climate change factors have affected the species’s food supply chain. Polar bears population growth in general is extremely slow and fluctuates in response to natural factors, the major one of which is their prey ability. The bears need to maintain a high level of body fat, especially for the females in order to have healthy cubs. Nutritionally stressed, the mothers are being greatly affected by the rising sea levels in the marine regions with the most pronounced temperature increases. An increase in polar bear sightings have been reported near human settlements during the open water period in recent years. For example, Inuit hunters have reported an increase in bear population because of an increase in sightings near their villages. This has led to more hunting tags issued. Such observations are misleading and the increased sightings should be related to the fact that the bears are seeking an alternative food source. Additionally, offshore drilling for oil and shipping have threatened polar bears status. Years of data from satellite imagery as far back as 1970 shows a decrease in population and poor body conditions surrounding the populations of bears near Western Hudson Bay and Baffin Bay. These two populations are more likely decreasing and not increasing. As these populations decrease the continued problematic interaction with man will most likely continue and could very well increase, as the bears seek alternative food sources through the extended summer months (Stirling, Parkinson, Sep. , 2006). Scientists have very specific ways of tracking the earth’s temperature. The world’s temperature is constantly monitored from land-based weather stations and ocean buoys. They also use tree rings, coral reefs, and ice cores. The evidence shows the earth’s temperature is increasing. Three main source possibilities could be responsible for the increase in global warming: the sun, the earth’s reflectivity, and greenhouse gases. All three have been studied carefully, and the only one that matches up to the data is levels of greenhouse gases. The more fossil fuels we burn the higher levels of greenhouse gases (Environmental Defense Fund, 2012). The polar bears’ survival completely depends on their ability to use ice for hunting, and some of the highest degree of global warming effects has been on the polar regions of the world. Fortunately, with technological advancements researchers are now able to follow individual bears over a long period of time and collect valuable data on the species’s habitat concerns. The greater understanding of population trends and dynamics allows scientists worldwide to provide critically important data that will further assist in environmental management decision. â€Å"Studies show a significant decrease in polar bear populations from 1984 through 2004 near the western coast of Hudson Bay and in the community of Churchill, Manitoba, Canada† (Regehr, 2010). The level of human presence and recent commercial activities in the Artic, such as oil spills and contaminants, shipping and hunting have exposed polar bear population to higher risks and, as a consequence, have increased this species’s habitat food stress. Now, as much as one-third of the world’s polar bears are facing extinction. Interestingly enough, multiple social groups believe that there is no reason for panic and some of the data used in polar bear population decrease is false. The controversial opinions are opposing to the entire fact of global warming and climate change with explanation of political tricks on consumers. Additionally, a large number of scientists and distinguished engineers disagree with the fact that an immediate and drastic action is needed to protect polar bear species’s survival and control of global warming impacts. Environmental campaigners suffered a major blow in 2009 when emails stolen from computers at the University of East Anglia were leaked and were hailed by critics as evidence of scientists attempting to suppress evidence that contradicted the idea of man-made climate change. An inquiry into the scandal failed to find any evidence of malpractice by the scientists and a review of the science also ound it to be sound, although the findings were met with claims of bias from skeptics. â€Å"The science has become stronger and stronger over the past five years while the public perception has gone in completely the other direction (Gray, 2012). â€Å"A recent BBC poll found that 25% of British adults did not think global warming was happening† (Gray, 16. 2012) . Nevertheless, polar bears have been listed as threatened by the U. S. Federal Government, Department of Fish and Wildlife Service in May 2008). Accordingly, one of the highlights in mitigation measures and species habitat preservation was a formation of PBSG membership. In 1973 The International Organization called Polar Bear Specialist Group has negotiated and executed an Agreement of the Conservation of Polar Bears. (IUCN Species Survival Group, 2012). The meetings are held in Greenland every 3 to 5 years with the emphases on advancing the principles of the Agreement. As a result of the recently conducted series of meetings in June 2001 a working group has been assigned and funded to expend the knowledge on the essential life functions of polar bears and other marine animals. Such evaluation of the species’s immune and hormonal systems would significantly improve the continued efforts of humanity in preserving the Artic environment. These and many other initiatives remain to be under development status. However, the progress is being noticed and is pleasantly acknowledged. Multi-discipline mitigation measures must be addressed by the upcoming generation of human policy makers. Among multiple models of polar bear population and habitat features one can clearly notice an inevitable and non-reversible threat to important specie of the world’s largest bear. Therefore, understanding of the climate change and a greater precision in making management decision must remain being a worldwide concern. Neither the five countries of PBSG membership bound by a 1973 treaty discussed above no the American Environmental Protection groups themselves would succeed with this uneasy task of polar bear habitat preservation without a worldwide cooperation. References Ellis, R. (2009). On thin ice: The changing world of the polar bear. Knopf. Environmental Defense Fund (2012). Climate Change Impacts. Retrieved from: http://www. edf. org/climate/climate-change-impacts IUCN Species Survival Group (2012). IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group. Retrieved from pbsg. npolar. no Gray, R. (2012, October). Climate Scientists Are Losing The Public Debate on Global Warming. The Telegraph. Retrieved from: www. telegraph. co. uk Kuhn, M. (2010). Climate Change and The Polar Bear: Is The Endangered Species Act Up To The Taks? Alaska Law Review, Vol 7. , Issue 1, p. 125-150, 26p. National Geographic Society (2012). Polar Bear Ursus maritimus. Retrieved from: http://animals. nationalgeographic. com/animals/mammals/polar-bear Peacock, E. , Derocher, A. E. , Thiemann, G. W. , Stirling, I. (2011). Conservation and Management of Canada’s Polar Bears (Ursus maritimus) In A Changing Artic. Canadian Journal of Zoology. Regehr, E. V. , S. C. Amstrup, and I. Stirling (2006). Polar bear population status in the southern Beaufort Sea. U. S. Geological Survey, Alaska Science Center, Anchorage, Alaska. USGS Open-File Report 2006-1337. 20 pp. Regehr, E. V. (2010). Climate Change threatens polar bear populations. Ecological Society of America. Stirling, I. , Parkinson, C. L. (2006). Possible Effects of Climate Warming on Selected Populations of Polar Bears (Ursus maritimus) in the Canadian Arctic. Artic Vol 59, No. 3, p. 261-275. How to cite Climate Change Effect on Polar Bears, Essay examples

Queen “A Night at the Opera” free essay sample

Though criminally underrated by most music fans, Queen has created an enduring legacy with a career spanning three decades. Mixing sequins and glam rock with recognizable hits, they conquered the charts with songs like â€Å"Another One Bites The Dust† and â€Å"Bohemian Rhapsody.† A mainstay on radio stations worldwide, â€Å"Bo Rhap,† as its affectionately known needs no introduction. But the album is just as varied as the beloved single. Released in 1975, it was considered the bands breakthrough and is still attracting praise even now. Containing an astounding blend of heavy rock, jazz, folk and even a bit of lighthearted pop, â€Å"A Night At The Opera† is Queens crowning achievement. Each member (guitarist Brian May, bassist John Deacon, drummer Roger Taylor and the incomparable Freddie Mercury on vocals and piano) penned songs and Queen to this day is the only band to ever have each person achieve a number-one hit song. We will write a custom essay sample on Queen â€Å"A Night at the Opera† or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Standouts include May conducting an entire orchestra of guitars on the plaintive ode to lost youth, â€Å"Good Company,† as well as the most beautiful harp-accompanied ballad, â€Å"Love Of My Life† a concert favorite. The album tends to be overshadowed by the huge success of â€Å"Bohemian Rhapsody,† but every song is truly a gem. From the biting venom in the bands ode to a greedy manager, â€Å"Death On Two Legs,† to the jaunty interlude of â€Å"Lazing On A Sunday Afternoon,† each song flows seamlessly into the next. And as usual, lead singer Freddie Mercury is outstanding, switching styles effortlessly from jaunty on â€Å"Seaside Rendezvous,† sweet in bass player John Deacons pop hit, â€Å"Youre My Best Friend,† and mixing yearning, remorse and astounding operatic vocals in, of course, â€Å"Bohemian Rhapsody.† This album is a definite must-have not only for Queen fans, but for any music-lover.

The oral effect of fluorides and acids The WritePass Journal

The oral effect of fluorides and acids Introduction The oral effect of fluorides and acids IntroductionOverview  Fluorides:  Acids:  Evaluation:  BibliographyRelated Introduction Overview Fluorides and acids are synonymous with dental hygiene. They are marketed across the world as being beneficial or detrimental. In this report, I shall explore the many views concerning the effects of fluorides and acids in the mouth. This includes their effects on teeth and gums as well as other relevant areas that concern human oral anatomy. Below is a brief outline of the topics that shall be discussed within this report:   Fluorides: What are fluorides? Why are fluorides important for oral hygiene? The chemical action of fluorides on teeth. How do fluorides bind with enamel to strengthen and protect it? What are the ways in which fluorides can be administered? Is â€Å"Fluoridation† good or bad?   Acids: What are acids? Why are acids important? Why are they bad? The chemistry of acids what makes them acidic? The genetic and lifestyle factors that could alter oral acidity. What is the chemical action and effect of acids on teeth? What is the effect of acids on gums for tooth support?   Evaluation: Are the relationships between fluorides and cavities reliable and/or valid? What issues of safety concerning the use of fluorides arise as a result of this project? Are the sources used in this project reliable and/or valid?   Fluorides   Topics that shall be covered in this section: What are Fluorides? Why are fluorides important for oral hygiene? The chemical action of fluorides on teeth. How do fluorides bind with enamel to strengthen and protect it? What other chemicals are needed to strengthen teeth? What are the ways in which fluorides can be administered? Is â€Å"Fluoridation† good or bad?   What are Fluorides? Fluorides are formed from the reduction of the element fluorine the 17th most abundant element in the earth’s crust.[1][2] Fluorine is highly reactive, and only exists as a combination of other elements in a fluoride compound. Fluoride compounds can be found in rocks and soil. Fluoride ions are generally produced when water passes over rocks that contains the fluoride minerals.[2] Why are Fluorides Important for Oral Hygiene? Fluorides are widely used in toothpaste, mouthwash and supplementary products to help reduce the risk of dental cavities.[6] In the UK, fluorides are mainly administered topically to the teeth through the process of brushing. However, only around five million people in cities across the West Midlands and North East England fluoridate (see fluoridation section) their water, so the fluorides have both topical and systemic administrations.[5] According to the British Dental Health Foundation, â€Å"Children who have fluoride when their teeth are developing tend to have shallower grooves in their teeth, so plaque can be more easily removed†.[3] Moreover, the U.S. Centre for Disease Control lists water fluoridation as one of the ten greatest public health achievements of the 20th century.[4] These methods of exposing the teeth to fluoride also increase the concentration of fluoride in the saliva. The fluoride ions interact with molecules of broken down (demineralised) enamel due to acid erosion.[7] This produces a similar enamel-like compound that can then remineralise the tooth enamel. When the rate of demineralisation is greater than the rate of remineralisation, dental caries begin to form. From this, the administration of fluorides work to increase the rate of remineralisation of tooth enamel, thus offsetting the rate of demineralisation reducing the risk of dental decay.[7][8] It is through the promotion of enamel remineralisation in the remineralisation/demineralisation cycle that fluorides have such an important role in maintaining healthy tooth enamel for good oral hygiene.[8][9]   The Chemical Action of Fluorides on Teeth Tooth decay is an infectious disease, involving an increase in the plaque formation of oral bacteria such as Streptococcus mutans and Lactobacillus.[10] These facultative bacteria respire anaerobically. Therefore, organic acids are produced when carbohydrates, such as sugar, are used up.[11] As more acid is produced the pH of the saliva decreases.[14] The pH scale generally ranges from pH 1 (the most acidic) to pH 14 (the most alkaline). The recommended saliva pH is said to around 7.2 to 7.4.[13] Therefore, saliva is just slightly alkaline. According to the ‘Manual of Dietetic Practice’ (2002), at a pH below 5.5, acid reacts with and breaks down the crystalline calcium hydrogen phosphate (hydroxyapatite) the main component of tooth enamel in a process known as demineralisation.[12] However, when the food source is depleted, the tooth enamel can be remineralised, where the saliva can provide the mineral ions lost for remineralisation. When the oral pH is greater than 4.5, available fluoride ions in the fluid surrounding teeth react with the dissolved crystalline calcium hydrogen phosphate ions forming a fluorapatite layer. This layer binds itself to the enamel surface. Moreover, the fluoride ions can react with the non-dissolved hydroxyapatite enamel, to substitute the hydroxyl group of the hydroxyapatite compound for fluoride ions. This process eventually forms a fluorapatite coating on the outside layer of the teeth.[8][16] The process to produce this remineralised veneer is much quicker than that to produce the normal hydroxyapatite coating.[8][40] Moreover, it is much harder to demineralise the fluorapatite coating by acid than it is for its hydroxyapatite counterpart.[40] This is because the fluoride group, which was substituted for the hydroxyapatite hydro xyl group, inhibits biological systems in the bacteria, so they cannot produce acids as effectively.[40] All of these factors concerning the formed fluorapatite, make this newly formed tooth enamel less likely to undergo acid erosion.[8] In this way, fluorides can function to reduce the risk of cavities forming in the teeth by its topical   effects.[17] However, some fluorides function within the body by interacting with the teeth. In these cases, the fluorides can become incorporated into the blood plasma and impregnated into the developing teeth by its blood supply.[17] This in-built fluoride makes the concerning teeth much more resistant to decay.[19][40]   The Chemical Equation for the Production of Fluorapatite: Crystalline calcium hydrogen phosphate (hydroxyapatite) reacts with fluoride sources, such as calcium fluoride CaF2 to produce a fluorapatite compound (calcium halophosphate).[20] Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   +  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   CaF2  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã¢â€¡â€™Ã‚   Ca10(PO4)6(F)2  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   + Ca2+ hydroxyapatite  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚      + calcium fluoride   ⇒   fluorapatite  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   + calcium   Studies Supporting the Use of Fluorides The â€Å"Centres for Disease Control† (CDC) published the graph shown by figure 4 above.[37] From figure 4 above, it can be seen that as the percentage of people drinking fluoridated water increases, the  mean number of permanent teeth lost, filled or decayed due to cavities decreases. It has also been shown that the fluoridation of water has reduced the risk of caries by 40-60%.[3] This, therefore, supports the evidence behind the mechanisms of fluorides to reduce the risk of developing cavities. However, it should be noted that these links do not signify a causal relationship between fluoride administration and the risk of developing cavities. This is because many other factors can also reduce the risk of cavities, and so one is not fully certain whether the fluorides are the reason for increased enamel strength.   Other Chemicals Needed Naturally Stronger and   Whiter Teeth As the surface of the tooth enamel begins to breakdown, the tooth itself begins to discolour. This is mainly due to years of chewing and general use, where staining agents become adsorbed to the teeth and the yellower dentine underneath becomes more exposed. Stains can be caused by smoking, eating, drinking and over grinding of teeth. The stronger one’s teeth, the lesser the likelihood that it would become stained by these methods. When tooth enamel has a strong structure, it is more easy to maintain its naturally white appearance. Strong tooth structure results from eating foods high in certain minerals and vitamins. In this way, stronger tooth enamel is less likely to undergo erosion by acid or undergo tooth decay.[21] The list below states and briefly describes some of the recommended nutritional supplements to take for stronger and whiter teeth:[29]   Phosphorus:   Phosphorus is involved in strengthening the teeth and the bones in the body.   Vitamin C and Vitamin D :   Vitamin C and vitamin D aids calcium absorption in the body.   Magnesium:   Magnesium aids the formation of tooth enamel   Calcium:   Calcium is needed for the body to develop durable bones and teeth. The more calcium absorbed, the greater the rate of calcification of the bones and teeth to a point. In this way, the teeth are stronger and less susceptible to acid-erosion. As calcium is naturally white, calcified teeth are thus whiter in appearance. Interestingly, the calcium deposited in the bones and teeth can be utilised by the blood to help provide the necessary minerals for the body. These minerals and vitamins have a greater systemic function in the body than fluorides for the prevention of cavities. It is, therefore, through the greater mineralisation of the teeth that these dietary supplements have the greatest effect on increasing tooth density to lower its permeability to acid absorption and breakdown.[22] In this way, both the systemic and topical methods of cavity-prevention are together vital to ensure good oral hygiene.[17]   Safe Fluoride Levels Fluoride Dietary Reference Intakes Recommended by the Institute of Medicine:[29]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  0.01 mg per day for those aged up to 6 months.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  4 mg per day for men aged 19 years upwards. The Tolerable Upper Intake Level:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  0.10  mg per day for those aged up to 8 years.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  10  mg per day for those aged 8 years and upwards. Background Information:   The effects of consuming fluorides depend on the total daily intake of fluoride.[24] According to a publication by Fawell, J.K., et al. (2006), an adult living with unfluoridated water in a temperate climate would have a total daily fluoride intake of 0.6 mg/day, compared to one with fluoridated water, who would intake 2 mg/day of fluoride.[23] However, these intakes are different for different regions in the world, due to differing water compositions, cultures and climates. Requirements:   All personnel should report, inspect and monitor all processes involved in fluoridation to help prevent cases of overfeed of fluorides into drinking water. Organisations should also train staff to adhere to safety and good practice regulations. They should also produce audits and reports pertaining to the technical requirements for the safe and efficient usage each major compound used fluoridation.[25] These requirement have been set by the â€Å"The Centres for Disease Control and Prevention†. What are the Ways in which Fluorides can be Administered? Diet Fluorides are naturally found in many of the foods that we eat today. It can be found in fruits, vegetables and even in other organisms. Some of the most common sources containing particularly large fluoride concentrations are listed below:[23   Barley Cassava Rice Yams Potato Raisins Fish Shellfish Taro   Fluoride Therapy Fluoride therapy encompasses the use of toothpastes, mouthwashes, fluoridated water, dietary supplements and other means to deliver fluoride ions systemically or topically. Some of these methods shall be discussed below: Fluoridation What is it?   Water fluoridation is a technique used to administer fluorides via the public water supply. Although fluorides can be naturally occurring in our water, fluoridation specifically concerns the issue of adding more fluorides, so as to be of specific medical benefit to the public. Fluoride compounds are used to fluoridate water supplies. Sodium fluoride is the most common compound to use, due to its greater convenience, lower costs and greater associated safety.[27]   Sodium fluoride (NaF):   A white crystal or powder with no distinct scent that was the first chemical to be used in fluoridation.[27] Generally, the crystallised form is preferred when the compound is being handled, as there is less potentially toxic dust formed.[28] Because of this, NaF is generally used by smaller water companies. Further Information:   Fluoridated drinking water has the greatest contribution to one’s daily fluoride intake.[23] In the United States of America, a census was carried out in 1992. The census found that found that fluorosilicic acid (63%) had the greatest population reach out of all those that received water fluoridation, followed by sodium fluorosilicate (28%) and sodium fluoride (9%) respectively.[31]   Some Facts about Water Fluoridation Facts are from the source, â€Å"Fluorides†, produced by the ‘World Health Organisation’.[41] Out of all fluorides ingested, 70% to 90% of it is absorbed. When ingested, it can then form the acid HF (hydrogen fluoride), which makes up 40% of the total absorption. When the carried by the blood, the fluorides can then travel around the body. For those of 0 – 1 years of age, 80% to 90% of the fluorides that are absorbed remain. The rest is then removed by excretion (e.g. urine and faeces) 60% of the fluorides absorbed in adults remain in their body. The large majority (99%) of fluorides that remain are stored in bones and teeth. Excessive amounts of fluoride deposits in these regions can cause fluorosis. Notes:   In the United States of America, the optimal level of fluoride range from 0.7ppm to 1.2ppm[32], although the ‘WHO’ states that the absolute upper bound for fluorine in water should be 1ppm.[23] In the UK, the recommended and optimal concentrations of fluoride in water are 1ppm and 1.5ppm respectively.[33] However, the fluoride concentration in water depends on the mean maximum atmospheric temperature in that area. This is because, in hotter regions, inhabitants would consume more of the fluoridated water, and thus less fluorides should be present in it.[32]   Toothpaste Method of Administration:   Toothpaste is applied topically to teeth through brushing. Notes:   On average, toothpaste contains 1000-1500ppm of fluoride, usually in the form of NaF. Further Information:   Parents should supervise their children’s tooth brushing to ensure that they do not swallow any toothpaste, which is a major cause of dental fluorosis in children under 7.[3][39]   Mouthwash Method of Administration:   Mouthwashes are rinsed in the mouth for generally 30-40 seconds before being spat out. Further Information:   Typically, mouthwashes contain fluorides by the addition of NaF (sodium fluoride). One can easily buy mouthwashes with 225 ppm of fluoride at local supermarkets without prescription. Notes:   Alcohol mouthwashes should not be given to children, due to their increased risk of them swallowing it. This is due to children having greater difficulty in overcoming the swallowing reflex.[3] Moreover, allowing children to swallow fluoride mouthwashes may increase their risk of dental fluorosis.[35]   Fluoridation: The Big Debate The issue of fluoridation has always raised big questions regarding its effectiveness, safety and usage. Some of the main pros and cons of fluoridation shall therefore be explored.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Pros:   Large Reach:   All members of the community would have access to regular fluorides doses, regardless of income, education or dental access. It many be particularly beneficial to children, as studies have shown that they do not brush as regularly as they should. Therefore, the omission of this administration fluoride can be compensated through water fluoridation, which all children should and would drink.   Advantageous for the Elderly:   As you get older, one’s saliva flow would generally decrease. This would mean that the elderly have less salivary fluorides that could access, remineralise and strengthen tooth surfaces. Moreover, the elderly have decreased manual dexterity to brush effectively and reach all surfaces. Therefore, all of these issues increase the risk of root surface decay for the elderly, but fluorides would help prevent this from occurring.   Evidence:   Many studies have been carried out to show that fluoridation of water does have a positive impact on oral hygiene and helping to prevent dental decay.   Support:   The fluoridation of water is supported by large health bodies such as: The British Dental Association; The World Health Organisation; The British Medical Association; and the British Fluoridation Society.   Cost Effective:   The use of fluorides reduces the risk of dental caries, and so potentially saves money for a patient who otherwise would have had to have payed for fillings.   Reduces the Risk of Dental Caries:   A recent study has concluded that adding fluorides to   drinking water supplies can lower the risk of dental caries by 40-60%.   Acid Resistance and Speed:   The compound formed when the broken down enamel reacts with fluoride is more acid resistant and forms more quickly than the original enamel coating.   Natural:   Fluorides, derived from the natural element, Fluorine, are non-artificial ions. They are regularly used by the body to carry out many other metabolic processes, so its addition into the body would not be unusual. In this way, we have a better understanding of the systemic interaction of fluorides in the body.   Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Cons:   Dental Fluorosis:   Dental fluorosis is probably the biggest issue surrounding the fluoridation of water. It is a conditions where an excessive consumption of fluorides can potentially cause white spots or brown stains to appear on the tooth enamel.   Poison:   An excessive consumption of fluorides is toxic and potentially fatal. However, one would have to regularly consume a volume of water far greater than that recommended for fluorides to have such a harmful effect.   Concern:   This idea that we are always drinking something potentially toxic could lead to much media attention. For example, the media may frighten the public with just one case regarding a patient with dental fluorosis. In this way, public attention that such stories would attract could lead to exploitation of the water fluoridation topic.   Law:   A patient contracting a condition where fluoride consumption is a risk factor could sue the water-board/government for unwillingly supplying them with fluorides. Therefore, there could be a vast potential liability in nationalising fluoridated water, and its media coverage may encourage even more to sue.   Ethics:   Some people may not wish to have further chemicals added to their water, as they cannot choose to drink unfluoridated water in a fluoridated community unless they buy bottled (distilled) water, which may be prohibitive for certain social backgrounds.   Necessity:   It is not yet completely certain whether fluorides are necessary to ensure that one can live. Fluorides work to reduce the risk of the formation of dental caries by counteracting some of the detrimental effects of acids and the associated oral microbes brought about from the consumption of carbohydrates. Therefore, it could be argued that some people do not need fluorides, since they do not consume much carbohydrates.   Resources:   Many pieces of equipment and additional resources are needed to carry out the process of water fluoridation. This can be costly, as improper pipework may have to be replaced to avoid health risks regarding overexposure of fluorides, such as fluorosis. All sources for the pros and cons are listed in the bibliography Acids Topics that shall be covered in this section: What are acids? What are the different types of dental decay? Why are acids harmful? The chemistry of acids what makes them acidic? The genetic and lifestyle factors that could alter oral acidity. What is the chemical action and effect of acids on teeth? What are the different types of dental decay? What is the effect of acids on gums and for tooth support?   What are Acids? An acid is a substance that has a pH value lower than 7, with the lowest and therefore the most acidic pH value being 1.[14] An acid is conventionally described as a substance that donates protons (hydrogen ions). The greater the ability of an acid to donate these protons, the stronger the acid.[14] Why are Acids Harmful to the Teeth? Just hours after brushing, oral bacteria, such as streptococcus mutans, form a thin coating over your teeth called plaque.[10] When foods or beverages that contain carbohydrates (for sucrose, fructose and glucose) enter the mouth, the bacteria within the plaque rapidly convert these carbohydrates (sugars) into lactic acid through anaerobic respiration. It is the hydrogen ions contained within this produced compound that acts and reacts as the acid.[11] Moreover, the acid can be kept in contact with the tooth for up to 2 hours due to the plaque coating. This time frame allows the acid to breakdown the components of the enamel (hydroxyapatite) to eventually result in cavities.[40] The most common areas that can accumulate plaque are the molars and premolars, due to their deep depressions.[41] The outermost layer of the tooth is called the enamel. The enamel of the tooth is commonly known to be the hardest in the human body, due to its highly dense mineral structure. The main mineral in enamel is known as hydroxyapatite, which is a calcium phosphate lattice.[42][43] As the bacteria produce more acid, the conditions in the mouth become more acidic, reducing the pH. When the pH is lowered to 5.5, the rate at which the tooth is demineralised is greater than the rate for remineralisation. This results in an overall loss of phosphate and calcium ions from the enamel, which over time would lead to dental cavities.[12] The demineralisation reaction in enamel involving the constituent phosphate and calcium ions: Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2(s)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  + 8H+(aq)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ⇒ 10Ca2+(aq) + 6HPO42-(aq)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   + 2H2O(l) hydroxyapatite   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  + hydrogen   ⇒ calcium  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   + hydrogen phosphate + water From the equation above, the hydroxyapatite (crystalline calcium phosphate) reacts with the hydrogen ions to dissociate into calcium and hydrogen phosphate ions plus water.[20][42] Therefore, this primary mineral of the enamel has broken down and become absorbed into the saliva. However, once the plaque acid has been diluted and neutralised (mostly due to the saliva) the tooth enamel can then be remineralised, recovering the ions dissolved in the salivary fluid.[44] Throughout the day, your mouth is trying to maintain this continuous balance of demineralisation and remineralisation. Eventually over time, an overall loss of ions from the enamel would lead to tooth decay. Since enamel goes clear in the presence of light, the acids can break it down further to expose the softer and yellower dentine tissue below. The dentine is much more susceptible to acid-erosion, as it is less mineralised – it contains fewer minerals. In this way, fewer reactions need to take place to remove these minerals, so the rate of demineralisation is quicker than that for enamel. Dentine has nerves running through it, whereas enamel does not. Therefore, caries extending to the dentine can cause painful sensations especially when consuming hot or cold substances.[45] 5 things required for remineralisation of tooth enamel[36] The correct minerals (containing Ca2+, PO43- and Fl ions) must be present in one’s saliva. Carbonic acid must then be produced (naturally produced from carbon dioxide and water) and close to the minerals, so it reacts with and dissociate them into their constituent ions. This process must take place near the tooth area affected. The affected demineralised area of hydroxyapatite must be clean and accessible. Complementary shaped ions formed from the minerals can then attract to oppositely charged ions within the hydroxyapatite lattice. Carbonic acid must then reform carbon dioxide and water, which precipitates the complementary ions that were dissolved in it into the area of demineralised enamel. In this way, remineralisation of the tooth enamel has occurred.   What are the Different Types of Dental Decay? Dental decay involves the breakdown and weakening of the tooth structure by oral bacteria. This is normally through acidic conditions in the mouth. However, patients with untreated caries would have a greater risk of cavities continuing to form regardless of acidic conditions. Pit and fissure caries are amongst the most common forms of dental decay.[47] Currently, â€Å"tooth decay is one of the most common disorders† in the world.[46] Pit and Fissure Cari Pits and fissures are typical characteristics of   molar and premolar teeth, where the inwardly-folding enamel meet. Fissures are the result of undeveloped grooves, where the two folds of enamel have not fully joined. Therefore, it is in these areas where bacteria can most easily accumulate, increasing the risk of caries forming in these regions. Pits and fissures are also notoriously difficult to clean, so this only propagates the process of dental decay further. The deep grooves, called fissures, occur mainly on teeth at the far back of the mouth. These teeth are known are occlusal teeth, as they are involved in chewing. According to the website, DentalIQ, â€Å"Occlusal surfaces account for 12.5% of all tooth surfaces but will experience over 50% of all decay†.[49] They also state that, â€Å"Pit and fissure caries account for 88% of total caries in children†.[47][49] Pits are different to fissures, as they are only small holes naturally found in the teeth, usually at the points where the fissures themselves meet (in posterior teeth).[48] The reason why there are such a high cases of dental decay associated with these types of tooth surfaces is because the indents in the enamel mean that bacteria can accumulate in the sheltered conditions easily. In this way, if one does not properly clean these surfaces, the bacteria (e.g. streptococcus mutans) can thrive and destroy the nearby enamel. According to a study by the ‘Centres for Disease Control and Prevention’, â€Å"approximately 90% of caries in permanent teeth of children occur in tooth surfaces with pits and fissures†.[50][52] To reduce the risk of dental cavities forming in these pit and fissures regions of the teeth, dentists employ an innovative technique, known as ‘fissure sealing’. This involves filling the pits and fissures with a ‘sealant’, so that they form smooth surfaces that are much easier to remove plaque and food remains. According to the website, DentalIQ, Sealants are 100% effective in preventing pit and fissure caries if they are completely retained†.[49] Therefore, acids may not have as harmful effects on the posterior teeth if these preventative measures are taken. Over time, decay breaks down the enamel. The decay typically favours the breakdown of the enamel rods, which are highly ordered and mineralised basic unit of enamel structure. Therefore, x-rays of decayed teeth generally show a very distinct pattern, since the enamel rods are also of a very specific shape. This pattern can be seen by white markings from x-ray to the left.[63] When the enamel rods have fully decayed, the bacteria and acids then begin to break down the much softer dentine underneath, which would require more intensive dental treatment to be carried out, in the form of root canal surgery. Common Tooth Regions where Caries can Form: Definitions from the eNotes nursing encyclopaedia.[38] Facial:   Outside surface of anterior tooth, adjacent to the face. The term includes buccal (cheek) and labial (lips) areas. Lingual:   Inside surface of tooth, adjacent to the tongue. Occlusal:   Biting surface of posterior tooth. Incisal:   Biting edge of anterior tooth. Mesial:   Proximal surface of tooth closest to the midline. Distal:   Proximal surface of tooth farthest from the midline. What are the Genetic and Lifestyle Factors that could Alter Oral Acidity? Foods and Drinks pH Values[53] Gooseberries  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   2.8 3.1 Grapes  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   3.4 4.5 Raspberries  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   3.2 3.7 Strawberries  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   3.0 3.5 Oysters  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   4.8 6.3 Golden Delicious  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   3.6 Lemons  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   2.2 2.4 Limes  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   1.8 2.0 Sorrel  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   3.7 Carrots  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   4.9 5.2 Rhubarb  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   3.1 3 Pork  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   5.3 6.9 Olives (Green)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   3.6 3.8 Coca-Cola  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   2.52    The following risk factors for increased oral acidity have been taken from the website, iloveindia.com.[56] Diseases:   Esophagitis or Gastro-Oesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) can increase oral acidity as   the conditions involve acidic juices from the stomach refluxing into the mouth. Salivary Glands:   Decreased secretion of saliva, so the rate of acid neutralisation too decreases. Thus, acids are retained in the mouth for longer periods of time. Foods:   Excess consumption of foods high in acid (e.g. fizzy drinks and sour sweets) can lead to acid reflux, increasing oral acidity. Diets:   Some studies promote following a high carbohydrate diet, which would encourage oral acidity due to its anaerobic breakdown. Eating Intervals:   Eating sweet foods over short intervals is far worse than eating the same amount in one sitting. This is because acidic conditions are continually returning to the mouth, due to the anaerobic metabolisation mechanism of bacteria. Eating Disorders:   Those suffering from bulimia nervosa reflux consumed food, creating extremely acidic conditions in the mouth   What is the Effect of Acids on the Gums and Bone?   Gingivitis: â€Å"Gingivitis is an inflammation of the gums surrounding the teeth†.[54] In its early stages, bacteria begins to accumulate in the plaque around the teeth and gums, usually due to a lack of oral hygiene. This causes an excess of acid to be produced, irritating the gums. Over time, the gums become increasingly irritated and broken down, leading to reddening, or inflammation. It is quite common in these circumstances that the gums would also bleed easily when irritated further, such as when brushing. However, in gingivitis, the damage is solely to the gums, and if treated soon enough, is wholly reversible.[54] when gingivitis is left untreated, it can advance to periodontitis: According to the Medical encyclopaedia of the University of Maryland, â€Å"Periodontitis is the inflammation and infection of the ligaments and bones that support the teeth†.[34] Gingivitis is usually a precursor to periodontitis, as the inflammations in the gums, form pockets between the gums and teeth. Plaque, containing the acid-producing bacteria, can then accumulate and become sealed in these formations due to the further swelling of the surrounding damaged gum line. The bacteria is now in closer proximity to the supporting tissues of the teeth. The acids released by these bacteria then begin to breakdown these tissues and ligaments, weakening the attachment of the tooth to the bone. Abscesses (swollen area containing pus) are also very common in patients with periodontitis, since the pockets of plaque contain bacteria that secrete toxic liquids. These abscesses also increase the rate of bone destruction.[34] Over time, the structure holding the tooth in place is broken down, and loss of the affected tooth is much more likely. In fact, periodontitis is the leading cause of tooth loss in adults.[18]   Evaluation of Project There have been various strengths and weaknesses of some of the conclusions made within this project. Like many scientific analyses, it is very difficult to try and state a causal relationship between certain variables. For example, from figure 4, which demonstrates a link between fluorides and cavities, it is only suggested that there may be a link between them. However, there are many other factors that could also lead to a reduced risk of cavities, so stating that these effects are solely due to fluorides would be considered an invalid conclusion. However, there are many studies that support these links between fluoride exposure and cavity development, so the inclusion of this relationship is not just a means of convenience. Moreover, fluorides have been used in many countries across the globe for many years, and their theoretical effects have been validated and corroborated, increasing the reliability of the administration methods. In turn, many large companies have utilised fluorides within their oral care products, such as toothpastes and mouthwashes. There are also various social and ethical issues surrounding the use of fluorides, especially when concerned with the fluoridation of water. Since fluorides are a derivative of the highly reactive and potentially toxic element, fluorine, there may be quandaries as to whether fluorides are safe for use. This public anxiety has extended to the point of anti-fluoridation societies being created to outlaw the addition of fluorides to the public water supply. This dilemma has been seen particularly in America, where a majority of the population receive fluoridated water. In turn, by producing this report that supports the use of fluorides, some people may protest against it. All these issues are weaknesses of the report that should be considered. However, fluorides have been extensively studied prior to their use in the water supply. When used correctly, they have been found to be of such beneficial to oral health that the BDA (British Dental Association) and the ADA (American Dental Association) both highly recommend them. Many high-powered governments have considered fluorides to be beneficial for oral health, and they even save their citizens money, as they typically have to pay for less dental work, as a result of a reduced risk of developing cavities. The sources used in this investigation can be considered sufficiently reliable and valid. The source, â€Å"Dental caries: a dynamic disease process†, can be considered reliable, as it has been cited by 17 other independent studies.[8] In this way, the information used in this source has been reviewed and accepted by professional scientists. Since, dental caries are relevant to my studies, the information regarding them can also be considered valid for inclusion within this report concerning the effects of fluorides on the risks of developing cavities. Moreover, ‘dentalhealth.org’ states that â€Å"Fluoride can greatly help dental health by strengthening the tooth enamel. The reliability of this information is increased, as it is supported by the source, ‘tips4dentalcare.com’, which states that, The main positive effect of fluoride is increasing durability of tooth enamel. However, some may consider that certain sources are biased, since they are published by organisations that have certain interests in favour of a particular conclusion. For example, the source detailing the advantages of fluorides on oral health by the â€Å"British Dental Health Foundation†, could be biased towards supporting council fluoridation initiatives. However, these organisations are highly respected, and work on behalf of the public, not private, sector. Therefore, issues of outside interests could be considered invalid, and so the information provided and used within this report can be considered valid for use.   Bibliography Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997) Chemistry of the Elements, 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, p. 804. Just Think It. (2008). Fluoride. Available: just-think-it.com/f008.htm. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. British Dental Health Foundation. (2005). Fluoride.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Available: dentalhealth.org.uk/faqs/leafletdetail.php?LeafletID=17. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Division of Oral Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, CDC. (1999) Achievements in public health, 1900–1999: Fluoridation of drinking water to prevent dental caries. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1999;48(41):933–40. The Times Online. (2008). Minister orders fluoride to be added to water. Available: timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/health/article3295310.ece. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. National Fluoride Information Centre. (2008). Toothpaste. Available: fluorideinformation.com/guide_to_fluoride/toothpaste. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Pizzo, G; Piscopo, MR; Pizzo, I; Giuliana, G. (2007). Community water fluoridation and caries prevention: a critical review. Clin Oral Investig. 2007;11(3):189–93. Featherstone, J. (2008) Dental caries: a dynamic disease process. Aust Dent J. 2008;53(3):286–91. Aoba, T; Fejerskov, O. (2008) Dental fluorosis: Chemistry and biology. Crit. Rev Oral Biol Med. 2002;13(2):155–70. Ryan, KJ; Ray, CG. (2004). Sherris Medical Microbiology, 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Loesche, WJ (1996). Barons Medical Microbiology (Baron S et al., eds.): Microbiology of Dental Decay and Periodontal Disease, 4th ed. Univ of Texas Medical Branch. British Dietetic Association; Thomas, B. and Bishop, J (editors). (2002). Manual of Dietetic Practice, 4th ed. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford. Venturi, S.; Venturi, M. (2009). Iodine in evolution of salivary glands and in oral health. Nutrition and Health 20 (2): 119–134. Covington, AK; Bates, RG; Durst, RA. (1985). Definitions of pH scales, standard reference values, measurement of pH, and related terminology. Pure Appl. Chem. 57: 531–542. Wood’s Periodic Table. (2010). Home. Available: http://woodsperiodictable.wikispaces.com/. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Cury, JA; Tenuta, LM. How to maintain a cariostatic fluoride concentration in the oral environment. Adv Dent Res. 2008;20(1):13–6. Hellwig, E; Lennon, AM. (2004) Systemic versus topical fluoride. Caries Res. 2004;38(3):258–62. Merk Manuals. (2008). Periodontitis. Available at: merckmanuals.com/home/sec08/ch115/ch115c.html. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Ross, Michael H.; Kaye, Gordon I.; Pawlina (2003). Histology: a text and atlas: with cell and molecular biology, 4th ed. Hagerstown, MD: Lippincott Williams Wilkins. p.  453. Holleman, AF; Wiberg, E. (2001). Inorganic Chemistry. San Diego: Academic Press. Associated Content: Beckham, FD. (2008). White Smile, Weak Teeth. Available: associatedcontent.com/article/1266495/white_smile_weak_teeth.html?cat=69. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Information Portal about Teeth and Dental Disease. (2009) What is the Remineralisation of Tooth Enamel? Available: bleaching-dental.com/articles/what_does_the_remineralization_of_enamel_teeth.html. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Fawell, J; Bailey, K; Chilton, J; Dahi, E; Fewtrell, L; Magara, Y. (2006) World Health Organization: Environmental occurrence, geochemistry and exposure: Fluoride in Drinking-water. p. 5–27. Institute of Medicine. (1997) Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride: Fluoride. Washington: National Academy Press; 1997. p. 288–313. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1995) Engineering and administrative recommendations for water fluoridation. MMWR Recomm Rep. 1995;44(RR-13):1–40. Cure Tooth Decay. (2008). Are germs really the cause of dental decay? Available: yourreturn.org/Treatments/Teeth/index.htm. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Reeves, TG. Centers for Disease Control. (1986) Water fluoridation: a manual for engineers and technicians. p. 11-14. US Department of Health and Human Services. Lauer, WC. (2004). History, theory, and chemicals. Water Fluoridation Principles and Practices. Manual of Water Supply Practices. M4 (5th ed.). American Water Works Association. p. 1–14 Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride. National Academy Press; 1997 The Minerology of Nova Scotia. (1999). Fluorapatite. Available: http://nsminerals.atspace.com/EastKemp.html. Last Accessed: Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Division of Oral Health, National Center for Prevention Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1993) Fluoridation Census 1992. Georgia: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Bailey, W; Barker, L; Duchon, K; Maas, W. Populations receiving optimally fluoridated public drinking water 1992–2006. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2008;57(27):737–41.defra.gov.uk/evidence/statistics/environment/inlwater/iwfluoride.htm Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs. (2007). Fluoridation of water supplies. Available: defra.gov.uk/evidence/statistics/environment/inlwater/iwfluoride.htm. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. University of Maryland Medical Research Center. (2010). Periodontitis. Available at: umm.edu/ency/article/001059.htm. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Ismail AI, Hasson H (2008). Fluoride supplements, dental caries and fluorosis: a systematic review. J Am Dent Assoc 139 (11): 1457–68. Ora Media. What is the Natural Remineralisation Mechanism. Available at: http://mizar5.com/demin.htm. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. fluoridealert.org/health/teeth/caries/who-dmft.html eNotes. (2010). Dental and Periodontal Charting. Available at: enotes.com/nursing-encyclopedia/dental-periodontal-charting. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Sheiham, A. (2001) Dietary effects on dental diseases. UCL: Public Health Nutr. 2001 Apr;4(2B):569–91. British Fluoridation Society. (2010). How fluoride works to control tooth decay. Available: bfsweb.org/facts/dental_benefits/howfworks.htm. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. libdoc.who.int WHO publication website. (2002). Fluorides. Available at: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/ehc/WHO_EHC_227.pdf. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Dawes, C. (2003). What is the critical pH and why does a tooth dissolve in acid?. J Can Dent Assoc 69 (11): 722–4. Eastoe, JE. (1965). The chemical composition of bone and tooth. Adv Fluorine Res Dent Caries Prev 3:5-17. Silverstone, LM. (1983). Remineralization and enamel caries: new concepts. Dent Update 10 (4): 261–73. University of Illinois at Chicago: Johnson, C. (1998).   Biology of the Human Dentition. Available: uic.edu/classes/orla/orla312/BHDTwo.html. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Brigham and Women’s Hospital. (2010). Tooth Decay in Children. Available: http://healthlibrary.brighamandwomens.org/Library/Encyclopedia/90,P01848. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Summit, James B., J. William Robbins, and Richard S. Schwartz. Fundamentals of Operative Dentistry: A Contemporary Approach. 2nd edition. Carol Stream, Illinois, Quintessence Publishing Co, Inc, 2001, p. 30-31. Ash Nelson. (2003). Wheelers Dental Anatomy, Physiology, and Occlusion. 8th edition. Saunders, 2003, p. 13. Dentistry IQ. (2003). Sealed. Available: dentistryiq.com/index/display/article-display/187325/articles/rdh/volume-23/issue-9/feature/sealed.html. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2001). Promoting oral health: interventions for preventing dental caries, oral and pharyngeal cancers, and sports-related craniofacial injuries. A report on recommendations of the task force on community preventive services. Recomm Rep. 2001 Nov 30;50(RR-21):1-13. Tooth IQ. (2010). Layers of the teeth. Available: toothiq.com/dental-glossary/dental-definition-layers-of-the-teeth.html. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Banting, D.W. (2001) The Diagnosis of Root Caries. Presentation to the National Institute of Health Consensus Development Conference on Diagnosis and Management of Dental Caries Throughout Life, in pdf format; hosted on the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, p. 19. Food-Info. (2010). What is the pH of Foods? Available: food-info.net/uk/qa/qa-fp65.htm. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Emedicine Health. (2010). Gingivitis. Available: emedicinehealth.com/gingivitis/article_em.htm. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Irish Health. (2001) Fluoridation of water. Available: irishhealth.com/article.html?id=3071. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. iloveindia.com. (2010). Acid Taste in Mouth. Available at: http://lifestyle.iloveindia.com/lounge/acid-taste-in-mouth-11335.html. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. IMAGES Tips for Dental Care. (2008). The role of fluoride products in effective dental care. Available: http://tips4dentalcare.com/2008/06/24/role-fluoride-products-effective-dental-care/. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Planet Green.com. (2008). Make your own mouthwash. Available: http://planetgreen.discovery.com/food-health/makeown-mouthwash.html. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Flex your Smile. (2010). Periodontal disease. Available: flexyoursmile.net/perio.php. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. OC Dental Center. (2010). Teeth Whitening Orange County. Available at: ocdentalcenter.com/teeth-whitening-orange-county.htm. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Indolent Indio. (2009). A traumatic annual activity from the late ‘80s. Available: indolentindio.com/2009/03/a-traumatic-annual-activity-from-the-late-80s/. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Picsicio. (2010). Tooth decaying. Available: http://picsicio.us/image/a82d4a63/. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. ToothIQ. (2010). Dental Image #12. Available at: http://toothiq.com/dental-image/dental-x-ray-tooth-decay-caries-cavity-jpg.html. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Seamless Background Tile Collection Nature. (2009). 15a Lemon, lime, orange and tree. Available: http://silviahartmann.com/background-tile/14a-fruit-background-tile2.php. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010. Health Base. (2006). Gingivitis to periodontitis. Available: https://www.healthbase.com/hb/pages/dental-cleaning.jsp. Last accessed 10th Oct 2010.

Process Analysis in Composition

Process Analysis in Composition In composition, process analysis is a method of paragraph or essay development by which a writer explains step by step how something is done or how to do something. Process analysis writing can take one of two forms:   Information about how something works (informative)  An explanation of how to do something (directive). An informative process analysis is usually written in the third-person point of view; a  directive process analysis is usually written in the second person. In both forms, the steps are typically organized in chronological orderthat is, the order in which the steps are carried out. Examples and Observations Planning a good process analysis requires the writer to include all the essential steps. Be sure you have all the tools or ingredients needed. Arrange the steps in the correct sequence. Like all good writing, a process essay requires a thesis to tell the reader the significance of the process. The writer can tell the reader how to do something, but also should inform the reader about the usefulness or importance of the endeavor.(G. H. Muller and H. S. Wiener, The Short Prose Reader. McGraw-Hill, 2006)Reviewing Your ProcessWhen you revise your process writing, think about the people who will be reading it. Ask yourself these questions:(Robert Funk, et al., The Simon and Schuster Short Prose Reader, 2nd ed. Prentice Hall, 2000)Have I chosen the best starting point? Think about how much your audience already knows before you decide where to begin describing the process. Dont assume your readers have background knowledge that they may not have.Have I provided enough definitions of terms?   Have I been specific enough in the details? Example: How to Remove Chewing Gum From Hair(Joshua Piven et al., The Worst-Case Scenario Survival Handbook: Parenting. Chronicle Books, 2003)Prepare an ice sack.Place several cubes of ice in a plastic bag or thin cloth. Seal or hold it closed.Apply an ice pack to hair.Move the affected hair away from the scalp and press the ice against the gum for 15 to 30 minutes or until the gum freezes solid. Use a rubber glove or a dry washcloth to hold the ice compress if your hand becomes chilled.Crack the frozen gum into pieces.With one hand, hold the stuck section of the hair between the gum clot and the scalp, and break the frozen gum into small pieces.Remove the gum.Gently pull the frozen gum pieces from the hair using your other hand. If the warmth of your hand begins to melt the gum, refreeze and repeat until all the gum has been removed from the hair.Example: How to Mark a BookThere are all kinds of devices for marking a book intelligently and fruitfully. Heres the way I do it:(Mortimer Adler, How to Mark a Book. Saturday Review, July 6, 1940)Underlining: of major points, of important or forceful statements.Vertical lines at the margin: to emphasize a statement already underlined.Star, asterisk, or another doo-dad at the margin: to be used sparingly, to emphasize the ten or twenty most important statements in the book. . . .Numbers in the margin: to indicate the sequence of points the author makes in developing a single argument.Numbers of other pages in the margin: to indicate where else in the book the author made points relevant to the point marked; to tie up the ideas in a book, which, though they may be separated by many pages, belong together.Circling of keywords or phrases.Writing in the margin, or at the top or bottom of the page, for the sake of: recording questions (and perhaps answers) which a passage raised in your mind; reducing a complicated discussion to a simple statement; recording the sequence of major points right through the book. I use the end -papers at the back of the book to make a personal index of the authors points in the order of their appearance. Izaak Walton on How to Dress a Large Chub (1676)[I]f he be a large Chub, then dress him thus:First scale him, and then wash him clean, and then take out his guts; and to that end make the hole as little and near to his gills as you may conveniently, and especially make clean his throat from the grass and weeds that are usually in it (for if that be not very clean, it will make him to taste very sour); having so done, put some sweet herbs into his belly, and then tie him with two or three splinters to a spit, and roast him, basted often with vinegar, or rather verjuice and butter, with good store of salt mixt with it.Being thus drest, you will find him a much better dish of meat than you, or most folk, even than Anglers themselves do imagine; for this dries up the fluid watery humor with which all Chubs do abound.But take this rule with you, that a Chub newly taken and newly drest, is so much better than a Chub of a days keeping after he is dead, that I can compare him to nothing so f itly as to Cherries newly gathered from a tree, and others that have been bruised and lain a day or two in water. Being thus used and drest presently, and not washt after he is gutted (for note that lying long in water, and washing the blood out of the Fish after they be gutted, abates much of their sweetness), you will find the Chub to be such meat as will recompense your labour.(Izaak Walton, The Compleat Angler, 5th edition, 1676) The Limitations of LanguageThose who think they are testing a boys elementary command of English by asking him to describe in words how one ties ones tie or what a pair of scissors is like, are far astray. For precisely what language can hardly do at all, and never does well, is to inform us about complex physical shapes and movements. . . . Hence we never in real life voluntarily use language for this purpose; we draw a diagram or go through pantomimic gestures.(C.S. Lewis, Studies in Words, 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, 1967)The Lighter Side of Process Analysis                        How to Make a Swing With No Rope or Board or Nails                       First grow a moustache                        A hundred inches long,                        Then loop it over a hickry limb                        (Make sure the limb is strong).                        Now pull yourself up off the ground                        And wait until the spring                        Then swing!                       (Shel Silverstein, How to Make a Swing With No Rope or Board or Nails. A Light in the Attic.                              HarperCollins, 1981) How to Pack a Suit So It Wont Come Out Wrinkled                        Lay the suit on its back on a flat surface such as a tennis court. Take the sleeves and place                                 them at the side. Take the left sleeve and place it on the suits hip, and hold the right sleeve                                 over the suits head as though the suit is waving in a jaunty manner. Now put both sleeves                                    straight up over the suits head and shout, Touchdown! Ha ha! Isnt this fun? You may feel                                    silly, but trust me, youre not half as silly as the people who think they can fold a suit so it wont                           come out wrinkled.                        (Dave Barry, Dave Barrys Only Travel Guide Youll Ever Need. Ballantine Books, 1991)

Report on the Religious Life of Planet Earth Assignment - 1

Report on the Religious Life of Planet Earth - Assignment Example Or, generally speaking, is planet earth a religious planet? The physical universe displays evidence of a mathematical precision and order. This order is based on universal laws that govern the physical phenomena in the whole universe designed by an intelligent supreme authority, the Creator of all things. He ideally designed every part of these thousands of systems that cooperate with each other to keep His living creatures alive. For countless millions of years, the gravitational force of the sun has held all the planets in stable orbits. However, considering the possibility of man’s ruining or destroying the Earth by his own folly, the universal order that governs the whole universe might as well be disturbed thereby affecting our lives from other planets. Sadly, the current Earth’s rising temperature may pose alarming threats to this universal order as it already damaged the Earth’s ozone layer, which causes climate change. Concurrent climate change has resulted in destructive extreme weather which includes droughts, heavy precipitation, heat waves and hurricanes worldwide. An article reports that â€Å"it is very possible that we could see more instances of ozone depletion in the coming year as greenhouse gases emissions continue, causing increased tropospheric heat and more stratospheric cooling† (Daniel & Byrd, 2011). According to human report, such catastrophes have taken place through excessive deforestation, uncontrolled pollution of the atmosphere and spoiling of the waterways. In fact, research of the University of East Anglia declares that â€Å"China’s groundwater irrigation system is responsible for polluting the atmosphere with more than 30 million tons of CO2 per year† (Saini, n.d.), making China the largest greenhouse gas emitter in the world. This is evidently one example of how human is ruining the Earth’s environment and ecosystem. But the big question is why do humans

Orgnaization behaviour Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Orgnaization behaviour - Case Study Example There is a relationship between the team needs and motivation. Having various motivators in a team leads to satisfying the needs of each member of the team. Motivators persuade team members to offer their best endeavors in tackling a professional task. It regulates the individual’s internal energy and stimulates him or her in action (Stogdill, 1963). There are a number of reasons why team members require motivators. The first one is recognition. Every member of the team would desire to be appreciated for what he or she has done for an organization. This leads to personal satisfaction since the member feels that there are special privileges and benefits obtained from participation in the team. The second one is power. Motivators such as job promotion provide opportunities to compete for authority and responsibility within as an organization (Stogdill, 1963). Every member in a team has a passion of either being an expeditor or an administrator. These two positions are highly ranked interests because they hold the highest levels of authority and well paid as well. Team members also require motivators for affiliation. They need to feel satisfied and belonging to the team. Our team is made up of five members and they include: Nasser Alsahla, Christopher Coutu, Riley Vary, Abdullrahman sawaf, and Mohammad Alshahrani. Their abilities were analyzed by the birkman method to identify areas where they were least motivated. Two areas with the lowest scores were identified and include planning and administrating. The least motivated individual in planning were Nasser Alsahla and Riley vary both scoring 3 points. On the other hand, in administrating the least motivated were Mohammad Alshahrani, Nasser Alsahla , and Abdullrahman sawaf all scoring 8 points (Stogdill, 1963). The least motivated members of a team fail to succeed in an organization and adversely affect other members in the team. In the area of planning, Nasser